Living in a plastic bubble, a bubble in a plastic world

What is the most common thing floating on the surface of our oceans today? Most people would be astonished to learn that it’s plastic garbage. Scientists estimate that 25% of the earth’s surface is covered with floating plastics debris. Scientists recently discovered a a floating island of plastic the size of Texas in the Pacific Ocean. Charles Moore, the scientist who discovered the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”, describes what he first saw from the deck of his sailboat during a trip to Hawaii, “As I gazed from the deck at the surface of what ought to have been a pristine ocean, I was confronted, as far as the eye could see, with the sight of plastic. It seemed unbelievable, but I never found a clear spot. In the week it took to cross the subtropical high, no matter what time of day I looked, plastic debris was floating everywhere: bottles, bottle caps, wrappers, fragments.” Where does the garbage come from? Moore returned to study the garbage patch and estimates that 80% comes from land-based sources, and 20% from ships. The most common type of plastic he found were plastic pellets (aka nurdles), that are used to manufacture plastic products. Over 250 billion pounds of these pellets are produced worldwide and shipped around the world. The rest of the plastic he found in the garbage patch consisted of plastic bags and plastic gadgets “that could stock the checkout counter at a convenience store.”

All this plastic is having a devastating effect on wildlife (see below, The Dangers of Plastic Bags). Birds, fish, turtles, and other wildlife become entangled in the plastic or else ingest it, and choke or starve to death. Japanese scientists have found that plastic fragments in the ocean attract and accumulate poisons such as DDT, PCB’s and other toxins in extremely high concentrations. The poisons move up the food web as jellyfish eat them (and the toxins), are then eaten by fish, which are then eaten by larger fish. Humans consume many species of fish that are known to have high levels of toxins. The problem isn’t limited to oceans, plastic garbage and windblown bags harm terrestrial wildlife and pollute rivers and lakes.

The main problem with plastics is that they don’t biodegrade, they photodegrade – a process whereby sunlight breaks it down into smaller pieces of plastic polymer and eventually down to plastic molecules. Even microscopically small individual plastic molecules are indigestible to bacteria and every other organism on earth. It may take 500 years or longer for those plastic molecules to be broken down into the building blocks of life. Plastics are washed from city streets into stormwater drains that eventually reach some sort of water way (a river or the ocean), and are eventually carried out to sea by ocean currents. The result is that the plant’s oceans are literally stewing in garbage.

People love plastic for the same reasons that it so harmful to wildlife – it’s indestructible and lasts forever. Plastic has become ubiquitous; it would be hard for most people to imagine life without it. Global consumption of plastic has skyrocketed from 5 million tons to 100 million tons since the 1950’s. Sadly, much of this plastic is disposable – over 35% is packaging that the consumer just throws away. The world produces close to 1 trillion plastic bags per year, almost 40% come from the US, and billions end up as trash. Each individual person uses hundreds of these bags every year. The numbers are staggering. Plastics are also made from petrochemicals, a product of oil, which means that our addiction to plastic is also fueling our unsustainable dependence on oil.


How can you lessen your impact?

Paper or Plastic?
Impact: Plastic bags pose a threat to wildlife that ingest or become intangled in floating or windblown bags.
Options: Bring your own reusable bags, there are now a ton of options out there. If you forget yours, ask for paper which is almost always made from recycled materials (at least partially). Avoid using plastic food storage bags; instead use tupperware-type containers.

Reduce waste from packaging
Impact: Non-recyclable plastic clamshell containers and other types of plastic packaging are wasteful not just because they’re disposable, but because they increase transportation costs by making products bulkier.
Options: Avoid buying products in this type of packaging whenever possible, instead find products in paperboard packaging or else buy in bulk. Get take-out from restaurants with compostable or recyclable take-out containers.

Bottled water and drinks
Impact: Less than 30% of beverage containers are recyclable, in addition to using a lot of petrochemicals.
Options: Don’t buy bottled water, it’s bad for you (it contains Bisphenol-A) and the planet. Instead, drink filtered tap water from a reusable, preferably non-plastic container (such as Klean Kanteen). Buy drinks in recyclable containers with a #1 or 2 on the bottom. If you buy six-packs, cut apart the rings to prevent animals from becoming entangled in them.

Trash bags
Impact: No biodegradable, especially in our landfills.
Options: Reuse paper grocery bags to line you garbage can. Reduce the amount of garbage you throw away by composting food scraps in your green bin or in your backyard composter.

The Dangers of Plastic Bags

Stemming the tide of invasive species

The second biggest threat to biodiversity in the world is human-caused biological invasions by introduced species (the first is habitat destruction in its many forms). Biological invasions represent an important facet of global environmental change, the unprecedented opportunity for accidental and deliberate human-aided dispersal of species to new environments. Untold numbers of plants, animals, fungi, and microbes that have evolved in relative geographic isolation are being introduced into new ecosystems across the globe through international trade and travel routes. Not every new species that is introduced will become invasive. Most species that escape are not successful in their new habitat, but some are well adapted to their new environment and have the bonus of having no natural enemies. Without anything the control its population, these species begin to multiply and spread rapidly, becoming invasive. In the process, invasive species take over and push out the native plants and animals that used to live (or feed, breed, etc.) there, oftentimes resulting in their extinction locally. In fact, 42% of the species on the endangered species list are there because an invasive species kicked them out of their habitat, and worldwide that number is 80%. The end result of a successful invasion is the homogenization of plant communities, often characterized by a single species exerting dominating the entire ecosystem.

It’s an expensive problem; the economic impacts of invasive species are roughly estimated to cost the US $138 billion a year, worldwide its $1.4 trillion (or 5% of the global economy). That’s spent on detection, chemical and manual control, loss of range and cropland productivity, decreased land value, increased threat from natural disasters (fire, erosion, and flooding), loss of recreational opportunities, and decreased water availability. Some are intentional introductions, plants and animals imported from other countries to be sold in the US that somehow escape captivity or disperse their offspring into the wild. Other invasions are accidental. Weed seeds, insects, fungi and bacteria can hitch a ride through nursery soil, contaminated seed or animal feed, on other plants or animals, on humans (or using our transportation), in the water or through the wind. Animals, such as the brown tree snake, can sneak onto overseas airlines. Marine invertebrates, like zebra mussels, can be released in harbors from ship ballast water. Many other animals, such as rodents, can hitch a ride on the ships themselves.

Humans have long had the habit of introducing new plants and animals whenever they traveled to new places. Humans tend to bring useful species, ones that can be cultivated or raised for food (some they like for less practical reasons), but other species can hitch a ride and arrive unnoticed, at least initially. As humans have learned to travel faster and farther, the rate of species invasions and their impact to our landscape has increased along with it. Globalization means that new species are being introduced everywhere in the world like never before. The US now has an estimated 50,000 known invasive species, and that number that is increasing rapidly. Some species become invasive quickly after being introduced to a new suitable habitat, other “sleepers” don’t become a problem until years after they’ve been introduced. Climate change models predict that global warming will allow many invasive species to expand their ranges. Because of all these factors, it’s difficult to predict which species will become pests, although scientists are creating better assessment tools for governments to use to screen imports.

What can one person do to stem the tide of invasive species? Here’s a list of some ways you can make a difference:

• Help control invasive species. Find a local community habitat restoration, land conservancy, park or watershed group that needs volunteers to pull weeds from your local creek or forest. It’s a great way to get some sunshine and exercise, and maybe learn more about nature while you’re there. You may even see a cool bird, some wildlife, or a rare wildflower, all who certainly appreciate you making more room for them.
• Be Fire and Flood Safe. Many invasive species, like Arundo and French broom increase the threat from floods and fires. Make sure your property is clear of weeds and plant appropriate alternatives, such as natives.
• Stop buying invasive species. Whenever you purchase any type of live plant or animal, find out whether it’s invasive before you bring it home. Plants in your garden can produce seeds that can travel miles and invade native ecosystems in your watershed or even beyond. Find a list of the invasive plants from your local Weed Management Area, then don’t plant them or remove any pests from your garden. Some types of beneficial insects can also be sources of invasions in some locations.
• Don’t transport invasive species. Its fun to bring back souvenirs from exotic locales, but don’t sneak stuff back that you shouldn’t, especially if it’s alive.
• Don’t dispose of stuff into waterways. Agricultural runoff, illegal dumping, and improperly disposed of aquarium water can all be sources of invasive species in our rivers, lakes, and oceans.
  
• Use your power as a consumer. Some known invasive species are still sold in the US. If you come across something you know is invasive, respectfully inform the retailer that you choose not to buy invasive species.

Fire on the Mountain

This summer I had my first personal experience with wildfire, previously having studied fire ecology in graduate school and visited many wildfire sites to study the effects of fire on the forest vegetation. But that was always after the ground had cooled and the firefighters had gone home. On June 21st we witnessed the lightning strike during a freakish dry lightning storm on summer solstice and saw the first column of smoke rise from the Plumas National Forest, just east of Sawmill Peak in Butte County and about 3 miles from my house. The Camp Fire was just one of 41 wildfires in the Butte County Lightning Complex that started on June 21st, and when we left for Quincy for HSMF on 4th of July weekend, Cal Fire was celebrating that the Camp Fire would be 100% contained the following day. We felt like we could finally relax and enjoy a weekend of good music. We enjoyed the festival so much that we had almost forgotten about the fires until the smoke started rolling in during Railroad Earth’s Saturday evening set, reminding us that the fires weren’t entirely under control yet.

The night we returned home, all of the separate wildfires near the town of Paradise (including the Camp Fire) had merged into one huge firestorm. The following morning, the sun was totally obstructed by the smoke, it was as dark as night. Outside it was raining heavy ash and embers along with burnt leaves and twigs that were still warm to the touch. The sky was so thick with smoke that it was hard to breathe and hurt our lungs. The fire was quickly moving in our direction, and the only fire break was the West Branch of the Feather River, a small creek at the bottom of a steep canyon. If the fire crossed the creek it could move up the brush choked canyon in a matter of minutes and the towns of Magalia and Paradise could be in flames. Cal Fire officials admit that it was a combination of hard work and a break in the weather that allowed them to contain the fire and keep it from crossing the West Branch. We lived under a precautionary evacuation order for over a month, the amount of time it took over 2,200 firefighters to finally contain the 59,440 acre Camp Fire. Cal Fire is still actively mopping up hot spots. The cost of fighting the Butte County fires has been estimated around $85 million.

California has spent $390 million dollars this year on fighting wildfires ($310 million over budget) and the federal government has spent $570 million, $340 million of that figure on fire suppression alone. Politicians are proposing possible solutions to pay for the escalating firefighting costs, such as creating a federal emergency fire fund and charging property owners in high risk areas a surcharge to help defray the costs. But there has been little discussion about why wildfires are getting progressively larger and more uncontrollable, and what we should be doing about it. After all, didn’t humans have a hand in creating the problem?

Wildfires have always been a part of the natural disturbance regime in places like California, like hurricanes in the mid-Atlantic. Many native people used fire to manage their landscape, recognizing that many native plants and animals depend on fire for their reproduction. Fire and other natural disturbances are essential in maintaining healthy populations and biodiversity of plants and animals. Historically, the fire cycle in the Sierra Cascade foothills where I live (characterized as mixed conifer forest) is roughly 7-10 years. Fire season was late summer to fall, fires were patchy (where large patches are left unburned), and most fires were ground fires (not canopy fires that burn the tree tops). The ground fires clear the forest floor of saplings and shrubs that have moved in since the last fire but, since they are cooler burning, most of the mature trees survive. The fire reduces the fuel load in the forest and the areas cleared by fire serve as a nursery for new pine and fir trees, which need the fire and the clean soil it leaves behind to germinate their seeds. As a result, historically the forest landscape looked something like a patchwork quilt of made up of patches of trees of different ages, depending on when a given patch last burned. Large scale canopy fires that burned entire forests to the ground were a more rare occurrence.

The United State Forest Service adopted a fire suppression policy in 1919 to protect valuable timber resources, and changed the historical fire regimes with unforeseen ecological consequences. Ironically, the main problem with fire suppression is that it causes wildfires to actually become worse over the long-term. That’s because when forests don’t burn, the forest floor below the mature trees becomes choked with vegetation, dramatically increasing the fuel load and making wildfires more intense and unpredictable. These fires burn much hotter and many more of them become canopy fires, as the fire uses the thick vegetation to climb into the forest canopy and burn the entire forest. The fires burn so hot that they even kill seeds buried in the soil, and move so rapidly, that most wildlife can’t escape to safety. Recent droughts and the effects of climate change are only making these fires more severe, as vegetation becomes more flammable and dry lightning storms become more frequent.

There is no shortage of recent examples of this type of wildfire, or firestorm as the network news is fond of calling them, and the devastation they cause. The wildfires this summer in northern California, that ignited from thousands of dry lightning strikes and burned uncontrollably for months, was certainly typical of this new fire regime that humans have helped create. The issue of how to improve our forestry management practices to decrease fire danger is a complicated issue with many different interests involved. There is the need of the forest to burn every few years, to regenerate itself and remain healthy for the plants and animals that depend on it. There is the need of the communities who neighbor the forest and fear losing their homes to wildfire. There is the need to manage forests for timber and other resources, which could be done utilizing fire as a management tool along with more sustainable harvesting methods to keep forests healthy. There is the risk to our infrastructure that large-scale fires can pose. With climate change predicted to make wildfire conditions even worse, there is an urgent need to find integrated solutions that address all of these issues. We need to do more than just spend more money on fire fighting (ie. fire suppression) and turn a blind eye to the larger problem. We need to resolve our relationship with wildfire and learn to coexist with it.

Al Gores Issues Energy Challenge to America

On July 17, 2008, former Vice President Al Gore challenged America to end our reliance on carbon based fuels within 10 years. To address his critics that say that we need more time, Gore replies that the world’s leading climate scientists have predicted that we have “less than 10 years to make dramatic changes in our global warming pollution lest we lost our ability to recover from this environmental crisis”. In short, climate change is happening right now, in our lifetimes, and we must start to address these problems immediately. Gore says, “Our success (as a civilization) depends on our willingness as a people to undertake this journey and complete it within ten years”.

Gore says that the greatest challenges our nation faces today (the economic crisis, rising gas prices, environmental challenges, and national security threats) all have a common thread: energy. “We’re borrowing money from China to buy oil from the Persian Gulf to burn it in ways that destroy the planet. Every bit of that’s got to change”, Gore points out.

He cites the greatest obstacle to achieving this goal is our dysfunctional political system, which he says often adopts band aid solutions that do nothing to really solve complex problems in the long-term. He says our past energy policies have resulted in our country paying the highest gas prices in history while the oil companies reap record profits. And for the politicians who say that more domestic oil drilling will solve our current gas crisis, Gore replies that the “exploding” demand for oil in developing countries like China is predicted to be so much greater than the increase in new oil discoveries that gas prices will never come down substantially “no matter what the oil companies (or politicians) promise”. Gore cites that even the oil industry recognizes that they must adapt or there will be dire consequences, relating that an OPEC oil minister recently was quoted as saying, “The Stone Age didn’t end because of a shortage of stones.”

No, but throughout human history, societies have either survived or failed based on their ability to adapt to the long-term effects of (often their own) environmental damage. In the book Collapse, biologist Jared Diamond says that in addition to environmental damage, there are four factors that together determine whether a society will adapt or fail: climate change, hostile neighbors, dependence on foreign trade, and the society’s failure to respond to its environmental challenges. These five factors contributed to the collapse of many advanced ancient societies such as the Maya, the Anastazi, and the inhabitants of Easter Island. The point that Diamond makes is that it wasn’t any one factor in itself that led to the demise of these technologically advanced (for their time) societies, it was the cumulative effect of their problems. Therefore, their problems needed to be addressed on a larger scale with integrated solutions, and they couldn’t solve any one problem in isolation of the others. Like the problems that our modern society faces today, the problems they faced were complex and interrelated, and couldn’t be solved with band aid type solutions that also serve to further the status quo. An excellent example he cites is of Easter Island, whose ancient society collapsed because they failed to see their problems as being interconnected. They deforested their island for timber, eventually causing trade to collapse because they couldn’t build canoes to trade with neighboring islands, the eroded soil from logging caused the failure of large-scale agriculture which caused widespread starvation, which then caused civil wars to erupt over scarce resources, and eventually their society collapsed. But the problems Easter Islanders faced differ from our modern problems in one hugely significant way. While Easter Island collapsed in relative isolation, having limited global impact, in the era of globalization all humans are now intrinsically tied together, making us even more vulnerable to collapse on a global scale. How will humankind work together to meet these challenges? Will we succeed or fail?

In Gore’s speech, he reminds us that our nation has acted quickly to overcome other monumental challenges (like landing a man on the moon), and we can overcome this one, too. He says we have the technology to make the transition to renewable energy, and as the demand grows, it will get much cheaper. Instead of importing 70% of our oil, we should be investing in an integrated national power grid, and more solar, wind and geothermal power. Growth in renewable energy would boost the economy and provide more jobs. He says we need to have the price of carbon based energy to reflect the environmental damage it causes, giving businesses an incentive to make the switch. Finally, we need to rejoin the global community and secure an international treaty to cap CO2 emissions. Ambitious, yes, but complex problems require complex, and integrated, solutions.

To learn more about Gore's challenge to end our reliance on carbon based fuels within 10 years, visit We Can Solve It.

Think Globally, Eat Locally

When I started doing research for possible topics to explore for The Forecast, I was initially overwhelmed by the shear number of green-related topics I thought were important. Reducing our dependence on non-renewable resources, combating global climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, saving our collapsing fisheries, invasive species and habitat destruction threatening habitats and species with extinction: so many of the environmental challenges we face are global in scale that it’s easy to feel powerless as an individual person. The idea that each of us has an ecological footprint left behind by our activities and consumption habits is gaining validity among sustainability proponents. But how can an individual reduce his or her ecological footprint?

Our culture of consumption has resulted in Americans having the largest ecological footprint of any people in the world. It seems to me that the first step toward sustainability is for each of us to start making more conscious choices as consumers, being thoughtful about the things we buy and more importantly the things that we decide not to buy. One way to do that is by thinking about the food we buy and where it comes from. I was shocked to read that the food we eat in the United States now travels an average of 1,500 miles before we eat it. That’s a long road trip, especially with gas at over $4 per gallon (and fossil fuels are also consumed at virtually every other step of the process: 17% of our nation’s energy is used to grow food and more energy is consumed during food processing, packaging, warehousing, and refrigeration). Because of skyrocketing oil prices, consumers are paying more for their food because it costs so much these days to get it to the store.

In order to live a more sustainable existence we need to drastically reduce the number of “food miles” our food travels, which means eating foods produced locally. This, of course, probably rules out 95% of the food most Americans eat, most of which is derived from genetically modified corn, grain or soy grown on corporate farms. I try to be a thoughtful consumer, buying more organic and fair-trade foods whenever possible, but when I started reading the labels I realized that my organic produce came from South America, my coffee came from Mexico, and most pre-packed foods travel from all parts of the country to my town in Northern California. In fact it’s pretty hard to put together a meal that hasn’t been to more countries than most world travelers. So, I wondered if it was even possible for a person to eat local foods and not starve to death. If you could actually pull it off, would it even make a difference in your ecological footprint? According to author Barbara Kingsolver’s book Animal, Vegetable, Miracle, if every U.S. citizen are just one meal a week composed of locally and organically raised meats and produce, our country would use 1.1 million fewer barrels of oil per week. A growing movement of people calling themselves locavores says it can make a huge difference to the environment and our health while also helping the local economy. I think you’d call that a win-win-win situation for pretty much everyone, except, perhaps, for the large corporations that control the food industry in the U.S.

Kingsolver says eating local can also help protect the world from widespread crop failures due to global climate change. But I thought modern agriculture was responsible for unprecedented food abundance? That may be true, but today 75% of the world’s food comes from less than ten crop species, grown in large monocultures by corporate farms. This loss of genetic diversity in our food supply makes us extremely vulnerable to global climate change. Kingsolver warns that “history has regularly proven it drastically unwise for a population to depend on just a few varieties for the majority of its sustenance”. Remember what happened in Ireland because they only grew one type of potato? Having more diverse food resources is what “stands between us and catastrophic starvation on a scale we cannot imagine… The line between abundance and disaster is becoming thinner and thinner”, says plant geneticist Jack Harlan.

The best way to protect our food supply is by keeping it more diverse. Humans have eaten over 80,000 different plant species throughout our short history on the planet. Until the mid 19th century most people ate plants and animals that were adapted to their local environment and climate. Farmers in every region would generally grow many varieties of crops each adapted to the local climate, so that in a bad year they didn’t starve. Over the years, farmers developed thousands of heirloom plants and animals each with their own unique characteristics, such as drought tolerance or pest resistance. In contrast, modern-day large corporate farms grow food that has been bred specifically so that it can be machine-harvested, packaged conveniently and travel long-distances without spoiling. The grocery stores only want perfect looking produce and, as a result of the need to travel so far and still look perfect, the fruits and vegetables sold there represent only 1% of the varieties that were once grown in the U.S just a century ago. But those heirloom varieties can still be found a the local farmer’s market, and supporting local agriculture helps insure that don’t become reliant on only 10 crops species. Those small, local farmers may hold an important piece of the puzzle in securing our food supply and helping Americans reduce their ecological footprint.

So how do you become a locavore? Challenge yourself to eat within your foodshed for one month. Figure out your foodshed by drawing a circle within a 100-mile radius of where you live and plan your meals around things you can buy locally.

Here are ten tips to get you started:

1. Educate yourself about what you’re eating. The more processed the food, the more oil it took to make it. Think about where your food or the ingredients in your food (if it’s highly processed) came from and how much oil it took to make. Start to read the packaging carefully and learn what the ingredients are made from. Avoid products with ingredients that are derived from corn and soy, as these crops rely heavily on petroleum based fertilizers and pesticides. For more info read The Omnivore’s Dilemma by Michael Pollan.

2. Buy organic. Conventional agriculture relies heavily on petroleum based fertilizers and pesticides, so buy organic whenever possible. Try to avoid highly processed organic foods and organic produce that is not local or in season.

3. Shop the local farmer’s market or join a CSA (Community Supported Agriculture). At a certified Farmer’s Market, you buy your produce directly from the farmer, and most vendors are happy to answer any questions you have about their growing practices. In addition to produce, you can usually find grass-fed organic meat, chicken, and eggs, as well as cheese. Farmer’s Markets are popping up all across the country, as are CSA’s (programs that deliver produce directly from the farm to the consumer). Find farmer’s markets and CSA’s at Local Harvest, where you can search for local and sustainably grown food anywhere in the U.S.

4. Eat fruits and vegetables only when they are in season (locally). In the U.S. we really have no concept of what is in season anymore. Most produce at the supermarket comes from far away and is sold year round (not when the produce is in season), and, if it’s non-organic, relies heavily on petroleum based fertilizers and pesticides. Buy local organic produce, only when it is in season. By shopping the farmer’s market, you can plan your meals around what you can buy locally and in season, enjoying produce that is tastier and more nutritious because it is local and in season. To re-educate yourself about when different fruits and vegetables come into season, check out Animal, Vegetable, Miracle by Barbara Kingsolver to learn more.

5. Buy organic non-CAFO grass-fed meat, chicken and eggs. Most meat, chicken, and eggs come from animals not raised on farms, but at concentrated animals feeding operations (CAFO’s). There they are fed corn feed, which is hard to digest and makes them sick, so they need tons on antibiotics and growth hormones. In contrast, grass-fed meat and poultry are fed a more natural and diverse diet, and are healthier to eat. They are also usually from smaller farms, and are only available locally. You can find grass-fed meat at some health food stores and farmer’s markets. For more about the health and ecological benefits of grass-fed meat, visit Eat Wild.

6. Buy organic dairy products. Dairy cows also come from CAFO’s, and the close living quarter’s means they are fed loads of antibiotics and growth hormones to prevent diseases from spreading throughout the feedlots and dairies.

7. Grow your own. Many vegetables and herbs can be grown in containers or gardens, so pretty much anyone can grow a few things themselves with minimal effort. Growing your own food gives you a closer connection to our food chain. It is also the freshest and tastiest produce you will ever taste, and used little or no oil to produce.

8. Lobby the supermarket to buy locally. Ask the supermarket manager to offer a larger selection of local organic produce, and grass-fed meat, chicken and dairy. They will listen if enough customers ask for them!

9. Buy locally produced foods. If you can’t find locally grown, find local businesses like bakeries and coffee roasteries to support.

10. Eat at restaurants that support local farmers. Some restaurants actually make an effort to but food from local farmers, so ask the server if any menu items feature local ingredients.